Treaties between Tibet & Its Neighbors
Tibet has repeatedly demonstrated its sovereign capacity to conclude treaties with neighbors since the 8th century. The 783 Changqing Peace Treaty and the landmark 821–822 Tibet–Tang Boundary Treaty with Tang China established mutually agreed borders and explicitly recognized Tibet and China as separate, equal empires, with inscriptions on pillars in Lhasa and Chang’an. In the 17th–19th centuries, Tibet independently signed the Treaty of Tingmosgang (1684) with Ladakh, the Treaty of Chushul (1842) and subsequent agreements with Jammu and Kashmir, and the Treaty of Thapathali (1856) with Nepal—regulating borders, trade, and relations without Chinese involvement. In the early 20th century, during de facto independence, Tibet concluded the 1904 Anglo-Tibetan Convention with British India, the 1913 Tibet–Mongolia Treaty mutually recognizing independence, and the 1914 Simla Convention (bilaterally binding with Britain) defining the McMahon Line. These treaties, spanning over a millennium, consistently show Tibet negotiating as an independent state with neighboring powers, long before the contested 1951 Seventeen-Point Agreement imposed under duress.
Tibet–Tang Peace & Boundary Treaty
Parties: Tibetan Empire & Tang Dynasty China
Purpose: To settle long-running wars and establish a clear border after decades of conflict.
Significance: One of the earliest recorded Tibetan–Chinese treaties; publicly inscribed on pillars in Lhasa and Chang’an affirming Tibet and China as separate, sovereign states with a mutually agreed boundary.
Source: Y. Pan, “The Sino-Tibetan Treaties in the Tang Dynasty” — detailed academic treatment of the treaty inscription and its diplomatic context. & Iwao Kazushi, Reconsidering the Sino-Tibetan Treaty Inscription — a careful scholarly re-examination of the inscription and dating.
Year 821/822
Year 1684
Treaty of Tingmosgang
Parties: Central Tibetan government & Kingdom of Ladakh
Purpose: Ended the Tibet–Ladakh–Mughal war and redefined political and trade relations.
Significance: Restored Ladakh’s independence while acknowledging Tibet’s authority over western Himalayan trade routes; regulated commerce and pilgrimage.
Source: Kyle J. Gardner, chapter “Territory before Borderlines” in The Frontier Complex (Cambridge University Press) — analysis of Tingmosgang and its role in defining Ladakh–Tibet frontier points. & P. Kaplanian, “(article on Ladakh/Tingmosgang)” in Himalaya (peer-reviewed Himalayan Studies journal) — discusses how the Tingmosgang settlement fixed key boundary/trade arrangements.
Year 1842
Treaty/Agreement of Chushul
Parties: Tibetan government & Dogra rulers of Jammu and Kashmir
Purpose: Ended Dogra General Zorawar Singh’s failed invasion of Western Tibet.
Significance: Reaffirmed the traditional boundary and restored peaceful relations; prevented Dogra expansion into Tibetan territory.
Source: R. A. Huttenback, “Gulab Singh and the Creation of the Dogra State of Jammu, Kashmir, and Ladakh” — Journal of Asian Studies (classic academic article on Gulab Singh, Zorawar Singh campaigns and the 1842 settlement) & Scholarly history and archival treatments collected in Ladakh and Western Himalayan Politics 1819–1848 (academic monograph / primary-document collection) — includes the Chushul/1842 settlement text and analysis.
Tibet–Kashmir Agreement
Parties: Tibetan government & Dogra State of Kashmir
Purpose: Clarified trade and border management following continued friction after the 1842 conflict.
Significance: Confirmed earlier understandings to keep the frontier stable and regulate cross-border movement.
Source: Political Treaties of Tibet (821–1951), DIIR/Central Tibetan Administration (edited collection of treaty texts and annotated historical notes) — includes the 1852 agreement text and documentary notes. (scholarly primary-document collection) & Scholarly background on mid-19th century Dogra-Tibetan relations appears in works on Kashmir history published by major academic presses — see BRILL / Oxford analyses cited in the Kashmir historiography (e.g., Kashmir — The Tale of a Lost Nation / related BRILL chapters).
Year 1852
Year 1856
Treaty of Thapathali
Parties: Tibetan government & Kingdom of Nepal
Purpose: Settled the Nepal–Tibet War (1855–1856) and re-established diplomatic and trade relations.
Significance: Tibet agreed to pay an annual tribute to Nepal; Nepal gained trading privileges and influence in Lhasa, shaping Himalayan geopolitics for decades.
Source: Treaty text and commentary in the DIIR collection Political Treaties of Tibet (821–1951) — includes Thapathali and primary documents & Scholarly studies of Nepal-Tibet relations and the 1855–56 war appear in peer-reviewed research and policy briefs summarizing archive material (e.g., Jawaharlal Nehru Institute / Japan Institute of International Affairs policy brief and other Himalayan studies).
Year 1904
Anglo-Tibetan Convention (Lhasa)
Parties: Tibetan government & British India (signed under military pressure).
Purpose: Ended the British Younghusband Expedition and defined British trade rights in Tibet.
Significance: Imposed unequal terms on Tibet; however, it affirmed Tibet’s authority to sign international treaties independently, weakening China’s claims of sovereignty.
Source: A.M.A. Hull, PhD thesis “Colonel Younghusband’s Mission to Lhasa, 1904” (Durham University) — a scholarly dissertation using British archives for a critical account of the 1903–04 expedition and the Lhasa convention; T. Myatt, “Tibetan Material Culture and the 1904 British Mission to Tibet” — Research Edition of RET / Cambridge(peer-reviewed area studies article) — archival and cultural perspective on consequences and treaty terms. & Alastair Lamb, British India and Tibet 1766–1910 (Routledge / academic monograph) — standard scholarly account (cited in multiple academic bibliographies)
Year 1913
Tibet–Mongolia Treaty of Friendship & Alliance
Parties: Government of Tibet & the Bogd Khanate of Mongolia
Purpose: Mutual recognition of independence from the Qing Empire and establishment of diplomatic alliance.
Significance: One of the clearest acts of Tibet exercising statehood, with both nations recognizing each other as sovereign Buddhist states.
Source: P. Mehra, “The Mongol-Tibetan Treaty of January 11, 1913” — peer-reviewed article (JSTOR) analyzing the 1913 treaty text and legal/political implications & Legal/academic assessments of the treaty’s validity and consequences in modern scholarship (e.g., law reviews and international history articles; see academic analysis on Mongolia-Tibet relations).
Simla Convention
Parties: Tibet, Great Britain, and the Republic of China (initialed but withdrawn)
Purpose: To settle Tibet–China relations and define the boundary between British India and Tibet (McMahon Line).
Significance: Britain and Tibet signed; China refused. The McMahon Line became the de facto India–Tibet/India–China border. Tibet again acted as a treaty-making party.
Source: P. J. Griffiths, The McMahon Line: A Study in the Relations between India, China and Tibet, 1904–1914 (published academic study / International Affairs) — detailed scholarly analysis of the Simla meeting and the McMahon Line; Legal analyses and historical studies of Simla (legality/ratification and boundary implications) in peer-reviewed journals (see JSTOR legal articles on McMahon Line & Simla Convention).
Year 1914
Year 1951
Seventeen-Point Agreement (contested)
Parties: People’s Republic of China & Tibetan delegates (under duress, not ratified by the Dalai Lama).
Purpose: To formalize PRC control over Tibet while promising autonomy, religion, and institutions.
Significance: Widely considered signed under coercion; later repudiated by the Dalai Lama. Marks the beginning of PRC rule in Tibet and the dismantling of Tibetan sovereignty.
Source: A. Raymond, “The Origins of the 17-Point Agreement of 23 May 1951” — China Quarterly / Cambridge Core (peer-reviewed article analyzing how the agreement was negotiated and its origins); Origins: The Seventeen-Point Agreement: China’s Occupation of Tibet — Origins (Ohio State University) historical summary drawing on archival scholarship; and the International Commission of Jurists report (1959) analyzing legal validity and alleged coercion.
Changqing Peace Treaty
Parties: Tibetan Empire & Tang Dynasty China
Purpose: Ended major Tibetan–Tang wars and established borders after decades of conflict.
Significance: Early formal recognition of Tibet as an independent empire controlling large parts of Central Asia; precursor to the 821/822 treaty.
Source: Beckwith, Christopher I. The Tibetan Empire in Central Asia (Princeton University Press, 1987); Dotson, Brandon. “The Old Tibetan Annals.” Vienna Austrian Academy of Sciences Press, 2009 & Beckwith, Christopher I. “The 783 Sino-Tibetan Treaty Inscription and its Significance.